Washington's crossing of the Delaware River

Washington's crossing of the Delaware River, which occurred on the night of December 25–26, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War, was the first move in a surprise attack organized by George Washington against the Hessian forces in Trenton, New Jersey on the morning of December 26. Planned in partial secrecy, Washington led a column of Continental Army troops across the icy Delaware River in a logistically challenging and dangerous operation. Other planned crossings in support of the operation were either called off or ineffective, but this did not prevent Washington from surprising and defeating the troops of Johann Rall quartered in Trenton. The army crossed the river back to Pennsylvania, this time burdened by prisoners and military stores taken as a result of the battle.

Washington's army then crossed the river a third time at the end of the year, under conditions made more difficult by the uncertain thickness of the ice on the river. They defeated British reinforcements under Lord Cornwallis at Trenton on January 2, 1777, and defeated his rear guard at Princeton on January 3, before retreating to winter quarters in Morristown, New Jersey.

Background

While 1776 had begun well for the American cause with the evacuation of British troops from Boston in March, the defense of New York City had gone quite poorly. British General William Howe had landed troops on Long Island in August and had pushed George Washington's Continental Army completely out of New York by mid-November, when he captured the remaining troops on Manhattan.[1] Howe then sent troops under the command of Charles Cornwallis across the Hudson River into New Jersey and chased Washington across New Jersey. Washington's army was shrinking, due to expiring enlistments and desertions, and suffered from poor morale, due to the defeats in the New York area. Most of Washington's army crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania north of Trenton, New Jersey, and destroyed or moved to the western shore all boats for miles in both directions. Howe and Cornwallis, rather than attempting to immediately chase Washington further, established a chain of outposts from New Brunswick to Burlington, including one at Bordentown and one at Trenton, and ordered his troops into winter quarters. [2]

Washington's army

Washington encamped the army near McKonkey's Ferry, not far from the crossing site. While Washington at first took quarters across the river from Trenton, he moved on December 15 to the house of William Keith to be closer to the army. When Washington's army first arrived at McKonkey's Ferry he had four to six thousand men, although 1,700 soldiers were unfit for duty and needed hospital care. In the retreat across New Jersey Washington had lost precious supplies, as well as losing contact with two important divisions of his army. General Horatio Gates was in the Hudson River Valley and General Charles Lee was in western New Jersey with 2,000 men.[3] Washington had ordered both generals to join him, but Gates was delayed by heavy snows en route, and Lee, who did not have a high opinion of Washington, delayed following repeated orders, preferring to remain on the British flank near Morristown, New Jersey.[4][5]

Washington had additional problems, including the fact that the enlistments of many of his men were expiring.[6] The series of lost battles and the retreat from New York had left morale very low in Philadelphia, where many residents and the Second Continental Congress fled to the south.[7] Many soldiers were inclined to leave the army once their commission was finished, and several had taken the opportunity to desert the army before their enlistments were up.[8] Orders were issued to bring supplies to the camp, and men were dispatched to recruit new soldiers, who did slowly begin to arrive at the camp.[9] Militia recruiting in both New Jersey and Pennsylvania was also successful, spurred on by British and Hessian mistreatment of New Jersey's residents.[10] Morale was given a boost on December 19 by the publication of a new pamphlet by Thomas Paine. Common Sense had served to increase support for the Revolution in its early days, and Paine's new pamphlet, titled The American Crisis, began with words well-known to American schoolchildren:[11]

              These are the times that try men's souls; the summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of his country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman. Tyranny, like hell, is not easily conquered; yet we have this consolation with us, that the harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph.               

Within a day of its publication in Philadelphia, General Washington ordered it be read to his troops. While Paine's writing could not feed or shelter the troops, it did serve to improve morale and help them feel a little more tolerant of their current conditions.[12] Some provisions, including much-needed blankets, arrived in the Continental Army camp on December 24.[13]

On December 20 an event took place that gave another boost to morale. General Lee's division of 2,000 arrived in camp under the command of General John Sullivan.[14] General Lee had been captured by the British on December 12, when he ventured too far outside the protection of his troops in search of more comfortable lodgings (or, according to rumors, an assignation).[15] Later that same day General Gates' division arrived in camp, reduced to 600 by ending enlistments and the need to keep the northern frontier secure.[14] Soon after, another 1,000 militia men from Philadelphia under Colonel John Cadwalader joined Washington. As a result of these reinforcements and smaller numbers of volunteers from the local area, Washington now had 6,000 listed as fit for duty. Of this number, a large portion were detailed to guard the ferries at Bristol and New Hope, Pennsylvania. Another group was placed to protect supplies at Newtown, Pennsylvania and to guard the sick and wounded who would remain behind when the army crossed the Delaware River.[10] This left Washington with about 2,400 men able to take offensive action against the Hessian and British troops in Central New Jersey.[16]

Crossing

On the morning of December 25, Washington ordered his army to prepare three days' food, and issued orders that every soldier be outfitted with fresh flints for their muskets.[24] He was also somewhat worried by intelligence reports that the British were planning their own crossing once the Delaware was frozen over. At 4 pm Washington's army turned out for its evening parade, where the troops were issued ammunition, and even the officers and musicians were ordered to carry muskets. They were told that they were departing on a secret mission.[25] Marching eight abreast in close formations, and ordered to be as quiet as possible, they left the camp for McKonkey's Ferry.[16] Washington's plan required the crossing to begin as soon as it was dark enough to conceal their movements on the river, but most of the troops did not reach the crossing point until about 6 pm, about ninety minutes after sunset.[26] The weather got progressively worse, turn from drizzle to rain to sleet and snow. "It blew a hurricane" recalled one soldier.[27]

Washington had given charge of the crossing logistics to his chief of artillery, the portly Henry Knox. In addition to the crossing of large numbers of troops (most of whom could not swim), he had to safely transport eighteen pieces of artillery and the horses to move them over the river. Knox wrote that the crossing was accomplished "with almost infinite difficulty", and that its most significant danger was "floating ice in the river".[28] One observer noted that the whole operation might well have failed "but for the stentorian lungs of Colonel Knox".[28]

Washington was among the first of the troops to cross, going with Virginia troops led by General Adam Stephen. These troops formed a sentry line around the landing area in New Jersey, with strict instructions that no one was to pass through. The password was "Victory or Death".[29] The rest of the army crossed without significant incident, although a few men, including Delaware's Colonel John Haslet fell into the water.[30]

The two other crossings fared less well. The treacherous weather and ice jams on the river stopped General Ewing from even attempting a crossing below Trenton. Colonel Cadwalader crossed a significant portion of his men to New Jersey, but when he found that he could not get his artillery across the river he recalled his men from New Jersey. When he received word about Washington's victory, he crossed his men over again but retreated when he found out that Washington had not stayed in New Jersey.[31]

Attack

On the morning of December 26, as soon as the army was ready, Washington ordered it split into two columns, one under the command of himself and General Greene, the second under General Sullivan. The Sullivan column would take River Road from Bear Tavern to Trenton while Washington's column would follow Pennington Road, a parallel route that lay a few miles inland from the river. Only three Americans were killed and six wounded, while 22 Hessians were killed with 98 wounded.[32] The Americans captured 1,000 prisoners and seized muskets, powder, and artillery.[32][33]

Notes

^ Dwyer, p. 5

^ The retreat is recounted in detail by Dwyer, pp. 24–112

^ Ketchum, pp. 208–209, 265

^ Ketchum, pp. 249–254,265

^ Dwyer, p. 130

^ Fischer, p. 129

^ Fischer, p. 136

^ Dwyer, p. 120

^ Fischer, pp. 150–152

a b Fischer, pp. 191–195

^ Ketchum, pp. 210–211

^ Ketchum, p. 295

^ Fischer, p. 156

a b Ketchum, p. 290

^ Dwyer, pp. 141–145

a b Fischer, p. 208

^ Dwyer, p. 210

^ Dwyer, pp. 216–217

^ Dwyer, pp. 211–212

^ Dwyer, pp. 212–213

^ Ketchum, p. 293

^ Fischer, p. 216

^ Fischer, p. 217

^ Fischer, p. 206

^ Fischer, p. 207

^ Fischer, p. 210

^ Fischer, p. 212

a b Fischer, p. 218

^ Fischer, p. 220

^ Fischer, p. 219

^ Ketchum, pp. 321–322

a b Crocker, p. 59

^ McCullough, p. 281. (There were at least 1,400 Hessians: 900 were captured, 500 escaped, 21 were killed, and 90 were wounded.)

^ Fischer, p. 256

^ Fischer, p. 257

^ Fischer, p. 259

^ Fischer, pp. 265–268

^ Fischer, p. 270

^ Fischer, pp. 273–275

^ Ketchum, p. 276

^ Ketchum, pp. 286–322

^ Fischer, pp. 222, 223, 339

^ Bennett, p. 89

^ Washington Crossing Historic Park

^ Washington Crossing State Park

^ Washington Crossing Toll Supported Bridge

^ Fischer, pp. 2–5

^ Washington Crossing Historic Park – Frequently Asked Questions

^ Liberty's Kids – Across the Delaware

^ William C. Nell, in his 1851 book Colored Patriots of the American Revolution

 

 

Source: Wikipedia
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